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Resource Toolkit
References
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Estimated hypertension prevalence, treatment, and control among U.S. adults. May 12, 2023. Accessed April 16, 2026.
Carey RM, et al. Resistant hypertension: Detection, evaluation, and management. Hypertension. 2018;72(5):e53–e90.
Fallo F, et al. Diagnosis and management of hypertension in patients with Cushing's syndrome: a position statement and consensus of the Working Group on Endocrine Hypertension of the European Society of Hypertension. J Hypertens. 2022;40(11):2085–2101.
Barbot M, et al. The Pathophysiology and Treatment of Hypertension in Patients With Cushing's Syndrome. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2019;10:321.
Araujo-Castro M, et al. Possible, probable, and certain hypercortisolism: A continuum in the risk of comorbidity. Annales d’Endocrinologie. 2023;84(2):272–284.
Pelsma ICM, et al. Comorbidities in mild autonomous cortisol secretion and the effect of treatment: systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Endocrinol. 2023;189(4):S88–S101.
Buse JB, et al. Prevalence of Hypercortisolism in Difficult-to-Control Type 2 Diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2025;48(12):2012–2020.
Koh JM, et al. Adrenalectomy Improves Body Weight, Glucose, and Blood Pressure Control in Patients With Mild Autonomous Cortisol Secretion. Ann Surg. 2024;279(6):945–952.
Morelli V, et al. Adrenalectomy Improves Blood Pressure and Metabolic Control in Patients With Possible Autonomous Cortisol Secretion: Results of a RCT. Front Endocrinol. 2022;13:898084.
Pathophysiology
Isidori AM, et al. The hypertension of Cushing's syndrome: controversies in the pathophysiology and focus on cardiovascular complications. J Hypertens. 2015;33(1):44–60.
Sato A, et al. Glucocorticoid increases angiotensin II type 1 receptor and its gene expression. Hypertension. 1994;23(1):25–30.
van der Pas R, et al. Cushing's disease and hypertension: in vivo and in vitro study of the role of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and effects of medical therapy. Eur J Endocrinol. 2014;170(2):181–191.
Quinkler M, et al. Hypertension and the cortisol-cortisone shuttle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88(6):2384–2392.
Saruta T. Mechanism of Glucocorticoid-Induced Hypertension. Hypertens Res. 1996;19(1):1–8.
Kelly JJ, et al. Role of erythropoietin in cortisol induced hypertension. J Hum Hypertens. 2000;14(3):195–198.
Kirilov G, et al. Elevated plasma endothelin as an additional cardiovascular risk factor in patients with Cushing's syndrome. Eur J Endocrinol. 2003;149(6):549–553.
Heaney AP, et al. Increased pressor response to noradrenaline in pituitary dependent Cushing's syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1999;51(3):293–299.
Jinna S, et al. Aldosterone- and Cortisol Co-secreting Adrenal Cortical Neoplasm With Lipomatous and Myelolipomatous Metaplasia JCEM Case Reports. 2023;1(2):luad012.
Prevalence Studies
Rudnick KV, et al. Hypertension in a family practice. Can Med Assoc J. 1977;117(5):492–497.
Danielson M, et al. The Prevalence of Secondary and Curable Hypertension. Med Scand. 1981;209(6):451–455.
Sinclair AM, et al. Secondary Hypertension in a Blood Pressure Clinic. Arch Intern Med. 1987;147(7):1289–1293.
Anderson GH, et al. The effect of age on prevalence of secondary forms of hypertension in 4429 consecutively referred patients. J Hypertens. 1994;12(5):609–615.
Omura M, et al. Prospective Study on the Prevalence of Secondary Hypertension among Hypertensive Patients Visiting a General Outpatient Clinic in Japan. Hypertens Res. 2004;27(3):193–202.
Musolino A, et al. Prevalence of Hypercortisolism in Hypertension and Its Link to Carotid Atherosclerosis Markers. Endocr Pract. 2026;32(3):329–336.
Martins LC, et al. Prevalence and Associated Factors of Sub-Clinical Hypercortisolism in Patients With Resistant Hypertension. J Hypertens. 2012;30(5):967–973.
Trifanescu R, et al. Screening for Secondary Endocrine Hypertension in Young Patients. Maedica (Bucur). 2013;8(2):108–115.
Martino MCD, et al. Hypertension and Cushing's syndrome: hunt for the red flag. J Endocrinol Invest. 2025;48(8):1909–1918.
Plutzky J, et al. Investigating Endogenous Hypercortisolism Prevalence in a U.S. Population With Resistant Hypertension. JACC Adv. 2026;5(3):102596.
Bhatt DL. Presented at American College of Cardiology (ACC) 75th Annual Scientific Session & Expo, March 28–30, 2026, New Orleans, LA.
Blood Pressure Phenotypes
Tang A, et al. Non-Dipping Blood Pressure or Nocturnal Hypertension: Does One Matter More? Curr Hypertens Rep. 2024;26(1):21–30.
Huart J, et al. Pathophysiology of the Nondipping Blood Pressure Pattern. Hypertension. 2023;80(4):719–729.
Zacharieva S, et al. Circadian blood pressure profile in patients with Cushing's syndrome before and after treatment. J Endocrinol Invest. 2004;27(10):924–930.
Pecori Giraldi F, et al. Circadian blood pressure profile in patients with active Cushing's disease and after long-term cure. Horm Metab Res. 2007;39(12):908–914.
Screening & Diagnostic Testing & Management
Nieman LK, et al. The Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93(5):1526–1540.
Galm BP, et al. Accuracy of Laboratory Tests for the Diagnosis of Cushing Syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2020;105(6):dgaa105.
Scoffings K, et al. Recognizing and diagnosing Cushing’s syndrome in primary care: challenging but not impossible. Br J Gen Pract. 2022;72(721):399–401.
Fassnacht M, et al. European Society of Endocrinology clinical practice guidelines on the management of adrenal incidentalomas, in collaboration with the European Network for the Study of Adrenal Tumors. Eur J Endocrinol. 2023;189(1):G1–G42.